The Origins of Lampung Pepper: Trade and Its Golden Age

UNGKIT.COM – Pepper cultivation has been practiced by ancient societies for millennia. In Indonesia—specifically in Lampung—the pepper plant is not native; rather, it is believed to have originated in the Western Ghats region of India.

One theory suggests that the pepper plant was introduced by Hindu missionaries who arrived in Indonesia between the first century AD and the early centuries of the Common Era. 

Another source indicates that pepper originated on the Malabar Coast of South India and was brought by Arab and Indian traders migrating to the Indonesian archipelago as early as 100 BC.

A more recent source suggests that this climbing plant was brought to the archipelago by Indian sailors and traders via Samudera Pasai and Pidie around the 13th century AD.

Cultivation subsequently expanded into the interior of Sumatra (Minangkabau), the Malay Peninsula, South Sumatra, West Java, and South Kalimantan between the 15th and 17th centuries AD. During this period, pepper was already being cultivated and traded in Lampung, particularly in the Tulangbawang, Sekampung, and Seputih regions.

Long before that—around 1000 BC—long-distance spice trade involving cinnamon and possibly pepper is believed to have commenced. This commerce linked India, the plant's place of origin, with Egypt.

In the pre-Common Era, Arabs acted as the primary intermediaries in the spice trade, sourcing spices from Southeast Asia and transporting them to Red Sea ports. 

Although specific archaeological evidence of pepper in Indonesia from the pre-Common Era is scarce, trade in western Java and Sumatra was reportedly active in later periods, suggesting these areas were potential early spice trade routes. 

Although pepper was already known within the international trade networks of the Indonesian archipelago via intermediaries during the pre-Common Era, it had not yet become a mass-cultivated commodity documented as extensively as it would be in the centuries of the Common Era.

From the 7th to the 13th centuries CE, trade routes in Indonesia—including the spice trade—were dominated by the Kingdom of Sriwijaya. As a leading maritime and commercial power in Southeast Asia, Sriwijaya controlled the Straits of Malacca and Sunda, served as a center for the spread of Buddhism, and maintained close trade relations, particularly with China and India.

By controlling strategic shipping lanes between East and West, Sriwijaya became a prosperous hub of international trade. Its ports attracted merchants from diverse nations who traded in spices, gold, ivory, and forest products, while also importing porcelain and silk. 

Arab records note that Sriwijaya possessed a variety of commodities—such as camphor, agarwood, spices (including pepper), ivory, gold, and tin—wealth that made the kings of Sriwijaya as affluent as the monarchs of India.

This abundant wealth enabled the Kingdom of Sriwijaya to secure the loyalty of its vassals across Southeast Asia. Functioning as a major entrepôt—and having gained the blessing, approval, and protection of the Chinese Emperor to trade with China—Sriwijaya effectively managed maritime trade networks and controlled the vital shipping arteries connecting China and India.

For this reason, Sriwijaya had to maintain its trade dominance by constantly monitoring—and, if necessary, waging war against—rival ports in neighboring lands. The need to preserve this trade monopoly drove Sriwijaya to launch military expeditions to conquer competing ports in the surrounding region and incorporate them into the Sriwijayan *mandala* (sphere of influence).

The port of Malayu in Jambi, Kota Kapur on Bangka Island, Tarumanagara, the port of Sunda in West Java, Kalingga in Central Java, as well as the ports of Kedah and Chaiya on the Malay Peninsula, were among the ports conquered and absorbed into Sriwijaya's sphere of influence.

Evidence of the Sriwijaya Kingdom's authority in Lampung includes the Palas Pasemah Inscription, found in South Lampung Regency, and the Bungkuk Inscription, found in East Lampung Regency. 

Both inscriptions commemorate the conquest of the Lampung region by Sriwijaya and contain oaths and curses directed at those who refused to submit or committed hostile acts against the kingdom.

The content of these two inscriptions—estimated to date from the late 7th century CE—bears a resemblance to that of the Karang Berahi Inscription (found on the banks of the Batang Merangin River in Jambi) and the Kota Kapur Inscription (found on the west coast of Bangka Island). It is believed that they were created during roughly the same period.

Historical records from Champa mention a series of naval raids launched from Java against various ports in Champa and Cambodia. It is possible that the invading naval force was, in fact, the Sriwijaya fleet, given that the Sailendra dynasty in Java was part of the Sriwijaya "mandala" at the time. These actions represented an effort by Sriwijaya to secure its monopoly over maritime trade in Southeast Asia by striking at rival ports. 

The Sailendra dynasty—suspected of having raided port cities in Champa and Cambodia—was a line of influential rulers in the Indonesian archipelago, particularly in Java during the era of the Ancient Mataram Kingdom (8th century CE); they were known adherents of Mahayana Buddhism.

In addition to maintaining trade ties with India and China, Sriwijaya also engaged in commerce with the Arab world. Pepper cultivation is believed to have begun during the Sriwijaya era, a development linked to the kingdom's close relationship with the Chola Mandala Kingdom in India—a powerful maritime dynasty that reached the zenith of its power under Kings Rajaraja I and Rajendra Chola I.

This close relationship ultimately collapsed in the 11th century CE when the Chola Kingdom, under the rule of Rajendra Chola I, attacked and defeated Sriwijaya. The arrival of troops from India is said to have played a role in introducing the pepper plant to Sumatra.

In terms of recorded commerce, pepper from Lampung—a key Indonesian spice commodity—was widely traded with kingdoms on the island of Java. At that time, the region had already established trade links with the Sunda and Javanese kingdoms. Commodities traded alongside pepper included cotton, gold, honey, wax, rattan, rice, and other agricultural produce.

This is corroborated by the records of Tomé Pires, a Portuguese apothecary, colonial administrator, and diplomat. He noted that the Kingdom of Sunda (regño de Çumda) maintained trade relations with Tulangbawang (Tulimbavam) and Sekampung (Çaçanpom) in Lampung.

These trade relations persisted into the era of the Banten Sultanate. Goods from Tulangbawang and Sekampung, such as pepper, entered Sunda via the port of Cheguide (Cigede). This port is believed to have been located at the Kramat Site in Tangerang, near the estuary of the Cisedane River. 

Lampung pepper gained global renown after European traders secured control of Malacca in 1511. The Banten Sultanate began intensively purchasing and monopolizing the trade of Lampung pepper starting in the 16th century—particularly following the Sultanate's establishment in the 1520s—with its dominance intensifying throughout the 17th century.

Through Banten, Lampung pepper reached markets in Malacca, Europe, East Asia, and other parts of the world. During this period, Lampung served as Banten's primary source of pepper for meeting international market demand. (*)

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